Satavahana's administration, economy, culture and religion | NCERT Notes for UPSC and GPSC & Govt. Exams

 Details about Satavahana

Territorial extent of the Satavahana

The Satavahana territory included northern Deccan region, spanning the present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Telangana states. At times, their rule also extended to present-day Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. The Nashik prashasti inscription issued by Gautami Balashri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims that her son ruled an extensive territory that stretched from Gujarat in the north to northern Karnataka in the south. It is not clear if Gautamiputra had effective control over these claimed territories. In any case, historical evidence suggests that his control over these territories did not last long. Moreover, this realm was not continuous: many areas in this region remained under the control of the hunter-gatherers and other tribal communities.

The Satavahana capital kept shifting with time. The Nashik inscription describes Gautamiputra as the lord of Benakataka, suggesting that this was the name of his capital. Ptolemy (2nd century CE) mentioned Pratishthana (modern Paithan) as the capital of Pulumavi. At other times, the Satavahana capitals included Amaravati (Dharanikota) and Junnar. M. K. Dhavalikar theorised that the original Satavahana capital was located at Junnar, but had to be moved to Pratishthana because of Saka-Kushana incursions from the north-west.

Several Satavahana-era inscriptions record grants to religious monasteries. The settlements most frequently mentioned as the residences of donors in these inscriptions include the sea ports of Sopara, Kalyan, Bharucha, Kuda (unidentified), and Chaul. The most frequently mentioned inland settlements include Dhenukakata (unidentified), Junnar, Nashik, Paithan, and Karadh.

Other important Satavahana sites in western Deccan include Govardhana, Nevasa, Ter, and Vadgaon-Madhavpur. The ones in eastern Deccan include Amaravati, Dhulikatta, Kotalingala and Peddabankur.

Administration of the Satavahana

The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:

• Rajan, the hereditary rulers
• Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
• Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
• Mahabhojas
• Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV)
• Mahatalavara ("great watchman")

The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.

The ahara appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several inscriptions refer to aharas named after the governors appointed to rule them (e.g. Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and Kapurahara). This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure.

The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords". The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara. It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota, who according to archaeologist James Burgess' interpretation, was the chief lady-in-waiting of Gautamiputra's mother.

The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gama (village).

Economy of the Satavahanas 

The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited from) economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.

During the Satavahana period, several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly, as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs.

The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period, leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as Kotalingala, as well as epigraphic references to artisans and guilds.

The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions two important Satavahana trade centres: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other important urban centres included Kondapur, Banavasi and Madhavpur. Nanaghat was the site of an important pass that linked the Satavahana capital Pratishthana to the sea.

Religion of the Satavahanas 

The Satavahanas were Hindus and claimed Brahmanical status, although they also made generous donations to Buddhist monasteries. The lay people in the Satavahana period generally did not exclusively support a particular religious group .

The Naneghat inscription of Nayanika, recorded on the walls of a Buddhist monastic cave, mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Vedic sacrifices, including ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), rajasuya (royal consecration), and agnyadheya (fire ceremony). The inscription also records subsantial fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. For example, 10,001 cows were granted for the Bhagala-Dasaratra sacrifice; and 24,400 coins were granted for another sacrifice, whose name is not clear.

In the Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri, her son Gautamiputra Satakarni is called "ekabamhana", which is interpreted by some as "unrivaled Brahmana", thus indicating a Brahmin origin. However, R. G. Bhandarkar interprets this word as "the only protector of the Brahmins".

A number of Buddhist monastic sites emerged in the Deccan region during the Satavahana period. However, the exact relations between these monasteries and the Satavahana government is not clear. The Pandavleni Caves inscription issued during the reign of Kanha states that the cave was excavated by maha-matra (officer-in-charge) of the shramanas (non-Vedic ascetics). Based on this, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya concludes that Kanha favoured Buddhism, and had an administrative department dedicated to the welfare of Buddhist monks.

However, Carla M. Sinopoli notes that although there are some records of donations to the Buddhist monasteries by the Satavahana royals, the vast majority of the donations were made by the non-royals. The most common among these donors were merchants, and many of the monasteries were located along the important trade routes. The merchants probably donated to the monasteries, because these sites facilitated trade by serving as rest houses, and possibly by directly participating in the trade. The monasteries appear to have been an important venue for displaying charitable donations, including the donations made to non-Buddhists (especially Brahmins).

Language of the Satavahana

Most of the Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in a Middle Indo-Aryan language. This language has been termed "Prakrit" by some modern scholars, but this terminology can be considered correct only if the term "Prakrit" is defined broadly to include every Middle Indo-Aryan language that is "not exactly Sanskrit". The language of the inscriptions is actually closer to Sanskrit than to the literary Prakrit used in the Gaha Sattasai anthology attributed to the Satavahana king Hala.

The Satvahanas also used Sanskrit in political inscriptions, but rarely. A fragmentary inscription found close to the Nashik prashasti of Gautamiputra Satakarni uses Sanskrit verses in vasanta-tilaka metre to describe a deceased king (probably Gautamiputra). A Sanskrit inscription found at Sannati probably refers to Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, one of whose coins also features a Sanskrit legend.

The Satavahanas also issued bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan language on one side, and Tamil language on the other side.

Inscriptions of the Satavahana

Several Brahmi script inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals, and do not provide much information about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations, although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure. The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19, which states that the cave was commissioned by Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha. At Naneghat, an inscription issued by Nayanika, the widow of Satakarni I, has been found. It records Nayanika's lineage and mentions the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family. Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names of Satavahana royals, appearing as labels over their bas-relief portraits. The portraits are now completely eroded, but the inscription is believed to be contemporary to Nayanika's inscription on a paleographic basis. The next oldest Satavahana-era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi. It states that the element was donated by Ananda, who was the son of Siri Satakarni's foreman of artisans. This inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni II.

Coinage of the Satavahana

The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated. The Western Satraps themselves had been following the features of the coins of the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest. Thousands of lead, copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage. The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. In addition, some reverse coin legends are in Dravidian (similar to the Tamil and Telugu languages), in the Dravidian script (similar to the Brahmi script appart for a few variations). Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty. The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the various coins. Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs. The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end.

Cultural achievements of the Satavahana

The Satavahanas patronised the Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit.The Satavahana king Hāla is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gāthā Saptashatī), although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re-edited in the succeeding century or two. Through this book, it was evident that agriculture was the main means of livelihood. Also many sorts of superstitions had prevailed. Additionally, Gunadhya, the minister of Hala, was the author of Brihatkatha.

Sculptures of the Satavahana

Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar writes that 

The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals. 

Dhavalikar also writes that in Chankama 

The panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (chankama) to and fro. Along with some of the above major Satavahana sculptures some more sculptures existed—namely, Dvarapala, Gajalaksmi, Shalabhanjikas, Royal Procession, Decorative pillar, etc. 

Bronze culture of the Satavahana

Several metal figurines are found that could be attributed to the Satavahanas. A hoard of unique bronze objects were also found from Bramhapuri. Numerous articles obtained from there were Indian but also reflected Roman and Italian influence. A small statue of Poseidon, wine jugs, and a plaque depicting Perseus and Andromeda were also obtained from the house from where the objects were found. The fine elephant in the Ashmolean Museum, the Yaksi image in the British Museum, and the cornucopia found in Posheri, kept at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya can also be attributed to the Satavahana period.

Architecture of the Satavahana

The sculptures of the Amaravati Stupa represent the architectural development of the Satavahana periods. They built Buddhist stupas in Amravati (95 feet high). They also constructed a large number of stupas at Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Gantasala, Amravati Bhattiprolu, and Shri Parvatam. Caves IX and X, containing Ajanta paintings, were patronised by Satavahana, and the painting throughout the caves appear to have started with them. Ashokan Stupas were enlarged, the earlier bricks and wood works being replaced with stone works. The most famous of these monuments are the stupas, the most famous among them being the Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa.

Paintings of the Satavahana

The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens—excluding prehistoric rock art—in India, and they are to be found only at the Ajanta Caves. There were two phases of artistic activity of Ajanta: the first occurring in the 2nd to 1st centuries BC, when Hinayana caves were excavated during Satavahana rule; the later in the second half of the 5th century under the Vakatakas. Vagaries of nature and some vandalism have taken a heavy toll on the Ajanta Caves. Only a few fragments related to the Satavahanas have survived in Caves No. 9 and 10, both of which are chaitya-grihas with stupas. The most important surviving painting of the Satavahana period at Ajanta is the Chhadanta Jataka in Cave No. 10, but that, too, is only fragmentary. It is a painting of an elephant named Bodhisattva with six tusks, related to a mythological story. The human figures, both male and female, are typically Satavahanas, almost identical with their counterparts on the Sanchi Gateways so far as their physiognomy, costumes, and jewellery are concerned. The only difference is that the Sanchi figures have shed some of their weight.

Art of Amaravati of the Satavahana

The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture. They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style. The Amaravati style of sculpture also influenced the sculpture of Southeast Asia.

List of rulers of the Satavahana

Multiple Puranas contain chronology of Satavahana kings. However, there are inconsistencies among the various Puranas over the number of kings in the dynasty, the names of the kings, and the length of their rule. In addition, some of the kings listed in the Puranas are not attested via archaeological and numismatic evidence. Similarly, there are some kings known from coins and inscriptions, whose names are not found in the Puranic lists.

The reconstructions of the Satavahana kings by historians fall into two categories. According to the first one, 30 Satavahana kings ruled for around 450 years, starting from Simuka's rule immediately after the fall of the Mauryan empire. This view relies heavily on the Puranas, and is now largely discredited. According to the second (and more widely accepted) category of reconstructions, the Satavahana rule started in around first century BCE. The chronologies in this category contain a smaller number of kings, and combine Puranic records with archaeological, numismatic and textual evidence.

Because of uncertainty regarding the establishment date of the Satavahana kingdom, it is difficult to give absolute dates for the reigns of the Satavahana kings.Therefore, many modern scholars do not assign absolute dates to the reigns of the historically attested Satavahana kings, and those who do vary greatly with each other.

Himanshu Prabha Ray provides the following chronology, based on archaeological and numismatic evidence:

• Simuka (before 100 BCE)
• Kanha (100–70 BCE)
• Satakarni I (70–60 BCE)
• Satakarni II (50–25 BCE)
• Kshatrapa interregnum with vassal Satavahana kings like Hāla

• Nahapana (54-100 CE)

• Gautamiputra Satakarni (86–110 CE)
• Pulumavi (110–138 CE)
• Vashishtiputra Satakarni (138–145 CE)
• Shiva Shri Pulumavi (145–152 CE)
• Shiva Skanda Satakarni (145–152 CE)
• Yajna Shri Satakarni (152–181 CE)
• Vijaya Satakarni
• Regional rulers of south-eastern Deccan:

• Chandra Shri
• Pulumavi II
• Abhira Isvarasena
• Madhariputra Sakasena
• Haritiputra Satakarni

Puranic lists of the Satavahana rulers

The various Puranas give different lists of the Satavahana rulers. The Matsya Purana states that 30 Andhra kings ruled for 460 years, but some of its manuscripts name only 19 kings whose reigns add up to 448.5 years. The Vayu Purana also mentions that there were 30 Andhra kings, but its various manuscripts name only 17, 18, and 19 kings respectively; the reigns add up to 272.5, 300, and 411 years respectively. Many of these kings are not attested by historical evidence. On the other hand, some Satavahana kings attested by numismatic evidence (such as Rudra Satakarni) are not mentioned in the Puranas at all.

S. Nagaraju relies on the Puranic lists of 30 kings, and gives the following regnal dates

1. Simuka (r. 228 – 205 BCE)
2. Krishna (r. 205 – 187 BCE)
3. Satakarni I (r. 187 – 177 BCE)
4. Purnotsanga (r. 177 – 159 BCE)
5. Skandhastambhi (r. 159 – 141 BCE)
6. Satakarni II (r. 141 – 85 BCE)
7. Lambodara (r. 85 – 67 BCE)
8. Apilaka (r. 67 – 55 BCE)
9. Meghasvati (r. 55 – 37 BCE)
10. Svati (r. 37 – 19 BCE)
11. Skandasvati (r. 19 – 12 BCE)
12. Mrigendra Satakarni (r. 12 – 9 BCE)
13. Kunatala Satakarni (r. 9 – 1 BCE)
14. Satakarni III (r. 1 BCE-1 CE)
15. Pulumavi I (r. 1 – 36 CE)
16. Gaura Krishna (r. 36 – 61 CE)
17. Hāla (r. 61 – 66 CE)
18. Mandalaka aka Puttalaka or Pulumavi II (r. 69 – 71 CE)
19. Purindrasena (r. 71 – 76 CE)
20. Sundara Satakarni (r. 76 – 77 CE)
21. Chakora Satakarni (r. 77 – 78 CE)
22. Shivasvati (r. 78 – 106 CE)
23. Gautamiputra Satkarni (r. 106 – 130 CE)
24. Vasisthiputra aka Pulumavi III (r. 130 – 158 CE)
25. Shiva Sri Satakarni (r. 158 – 165 CE)
26. Shivaskanda Satakarni (r. 165–172)
27. Sri Yajna Satakarni (r. 172 – 201 CE)
28. Vijaya Satakarni (r. 201 – 207 CE)
29. Chandra Sri Satakarni (r. 207 – 214 CE)
30. 30. Pulumavi IV (r. 217 – 224 CE)

Towards a Mid-Chronology of the Satavahana

Apart from the two traditional views (long and short chronologies) there is another kind of analysis pointing out to a "Mid-Chronology", as it was already proposed by Dr. Dehejia and others, and particularly most recently by Shailendra Bhandare, who regards Satavahana's rule extended more than three centuries (c. 150 BCE to 250 CE) with the flourish of trans-national trade, urbanism and monumental architecture in South India.

Bhandare regards Simuka to have ruled since around 160-150 BCE and that this date would still fit in well with Pargiter´s 460 years to the Satavahanas, as it would fix the end of the dynasty around 300 CE, not too far from the mid-3rd century as consensus approximately lies. Regarding Siri Satakani and his wife Naganika, Bhandhare considers their rule to have been somewhere around 110 +/- 20 BCE.

Bhandare also suggests the following sequence of reigns, based on his analysis of Satavahana coinage:

• Gautamiputa Satakani (ca. 60-85 CE)
• Vasithiputa Siri Pulumayi (ca. 85-125 CE)
• Vasithiputa Siri Satakani (ca. 125-152 CE)
• Vasithiputa Siva Siri Pulumayi (ca. 152-160 CE)
• Vasithiputa Siri Khada Satakani (ca. 160-165 CE)
• Vasithiputa Vijaya Satakani (ca. 165-170 CE)
• Siri Yaña Satakani (ca. 170-200 CE)
• Gotamiputa Siri Cada (ca. 200-215 CE)
• Gotamiputa Siri Vijaya Satakani (ca. 215-225 CE)

On the other hand, based to a large degree on Shailendra Bhandare's work, with slight corrections, Andrew Ollett (2017) mentions the following reigns for the whole Satavahana dynasty:

• Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana (ca. 120-96 BCE)
• Krsna (ca. 96-88 BCE)
• Sri Satakarni (ca. 88-42 BCE)
• Sakti
• Mantalaka
• Sundara
• Gautamiputra Siva Satakarni (?-60 CE)
• Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 60-84 CE)
• Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 84-119 CE)
• Vasisthiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 119-148 CE)
• Vasisthiputra Sivasri Pulumavi (ca. 148-156 CE)
• Vasisthiputra Sriskanda Satakarni (ca. 156-170 CE)
• Gautamiputra Sriyajña Satakarni (ca. 171-199 CE)
• Gautamiputra Srivijaya Satakarni (ca. 200-205 CE)
• Vasisthiputra Sricanda Satakarni (ca. 206-220 CE)
• Mathariputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 220-230 CE)

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